The relationship between theoretical knowledge understanding and practical application of knowledge in performance had a key consideration in many fields such as education, health, nursing, business, sciences, computing, and technologies (Katajavuori, et al., 2006); because: i) Theoretical knowledge provides frameworks for understanding complex systems, principles, and guidelines that can be applied in practical doing and performing a practice (Ven & Johnson, 2006; Jefferies, et al.,2024). ii) Theories often predict outcomes, helping practitioners anticipate results and make informed decisions about a process and products (Nilsen, 2015). iii) New theories can lead to innovations (Mazey, et al., 2023). iv) Practical application of knowledge is a way to test the validity of a theory (Lomborg, et al., 2013). v) Practical challenges can lead to refinements or even the rejection of existing theories, (Gopala, 2023). In essence, theory provides the foundation and direction, practice tests, refines, and sometimes challenges theoretical concepts, leading to growth and evolution in both domains of cognition and psychomotor (Fantinelli, et al., 2024; Lomborg, et al., 2013) along with developing scientific attitude and interest.

Pedagogical theories, such as constructivism, behaviorism, and cognitivism guide the development of curricula, instructional strategies, and assessment methods (Jabsheh, 2024). Vygotsky's social constructivism prioritizes collaborative learning and scaffolding to support student development. Classroom experience allows educators to test and refine pedagogical theories with their action research. Teachers can see which approaches work best with their students and under what circumstances. The observations and experiences from practice can lead to the evolution of pedagogical theories (Saleem et al., 2021) and changes in assessment and evaluation practices.

The theories of learning, pedagogy, and assessment may not always translate perfectly into practice due to differences in context; a theoretical application that works well in one setting might not be as effective in another. Theories provide the foundation for understanding how learning, teaching, and assessment occur and inform the design of effective learning and assessment experiences. In turn, practical application and real-world experiences test, refine, and sometimes challenge these theories or knowledge, leading to continuous growth and adaptation in both learning and assessment theories and practices. This interplay is crucial for creating teaching and learning environments that are responsive to the diverse needs of learners and the ever-changing landscape of education, learning, and assessment (Hiebert & Stigler, 2023).

Keeping in view the context of learning, pedagogy, and assessment or evaluation as basic components of teaching- the learning process all depends on certain theories to be learned during teacher training programs for practical application in classroom teaching. The general observation of the researchers tells us that most science teachers do not follow the proper theoretical (knowledge) and practical (skill or performance competence) components in their actual classroom assessment or evaluation processes and in general at the school level, what they mastered during their teacher's training and professional development programs. On the basis of the literature cited and the researchers' observation, it was intended to study the relationship between theoretical knowledge and hands-on practical application abilities of science teachers in assessment practices at the classroom and school level in general.

Statement of the Problem

As discussed in the introduction the researchers have observed that there is a strong relationship between the theoretical understanding (knowledge) and practical application (practice) of the classroom assessment practices as those having a good understanding of theory were also good in their practice and vice versa. The problem was stated as: “Relationship between theoretical knowledge and Application Abilities of Science Teachers in Classroom Assessment." The main objective of the study was to find the relationship between theoretical knowledge and practical hands-on abilities of science teachers in assessment in the classroom and school. The following hypotheses were tested:

H01: There is no correlation between theoretical knowledge and practical hands-on application ability of science teachers in assessment at classroom and school level.

H02: There is no impact of theoretical knowledge in assessment over the practical hands-on application ability of science teachers in assessment at the classroom and school level.

The nature of the study was quantitative with descriptive correlational and linear regression design. The sample of school principals (n=38) for the survey questionnaire was taken from two districts of Malakand division (Swat and Malakand) with simple random techniques. The sampled high and higher secondary school principals were surveyed through a self-made Likert scale questionnaire; delivered through personal contacts and registered posts. The collected data were analyzed through SPSS version 26 and the hypothesis was tested through statistical formulae for Pearson's correlation and linear regression with significance P < 0.05. On the basis of data analysis findings were drawn and discussed in the light of relevant literature; on the basis of findings and discussion, the recommendations were made for science teachers' training in Assessment theory and assessment practices in science subjects at the secondary level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan for making science teaching effective, efficient and qualitative.

Assessment or evaluation theories provide the foundation for designing, implementing, and interpreting assessments, while practical application tests and refines these theories (Khan, 2012). Theories of assessment, such as formative and summative assessment, criterion-referenced and norm-referenced evaluation, and construct validity, guide the design and implementation of assessments (Black &Wiliam, 2009). Theoretical knowledge of validity and reliability is crucial in developing assessments that are fair, accurate, and meaningful. Theoretical understanding of theories such as Bloom's Taxonomy, multiple intelligences, and cognitive load theory inform the design of assessments that measure not only knowledge recall but also higher-order thinking skills, problem-solving, and creativity.

Educators and teachers often engage in action research, where they systematically investigate their own assessment practices to improve student outcomes. This process not only refines practice but also contributes to the evolution of assessment or evaluation theories (Brookhart, 2004). The integration of technology in assessment is informed by both theory and practice. Theories of digital learning and assessment guide the development of these tools, while practical use provides feedback that leads to their refinement and improvement (Lim, et al., 2024). The ongoing interaction between theory and practice leads to the continuous improvement of both, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of assessments (James, 2006).

Pakistani's education policies and curriculum guidelines emphasize formative assessment, continuous evaluation, and student-centered learning. Despite the policies in Pakistan, practical implementation is hampered by outdated examination systems, a focus on summative assessments (like final exams), and rote learning. Teachers often prioritize high-stakes exams over continuous assessments due to pressure from education boards, educational departments, and societal expectations (Farooq, et al., 2019).

Teacher training programs in Pakistan include modules on modern assessment techniques, emphasizing formative assessments, feedback mechanisms, and diverse evaluation strategies. Many teachers, particularly in rural areas, lack access to ongoing professional development. They may not be adequately equipped to implement these modern assessment techniques in their classrooms. Many schools, especially in rural or underfunded areas, face significant resource constraints. Limited access to technology, insufficient teaching materials, and large class sizes make it difficult for teachers to implement continuous and varied alternative assessment strategies (Black & Wiliam, 2009).

Teachers are expected to be literate in various assessment methodologies, understanding how to design, administer, and interpret different types of assessments. In practice, many teachers have limited assessment literacy. They may struggle with designing effective formative assessments or providing meaningful feedback, often due to inadequate training and support (Khadijeh & Amir, 2015) Modern educational theories advocate for assessments that support student learning, encourage critical thinking, and are inclusive of diverse learning styles with support of using modern tools and technologies. Societal pressure for high grades and a strong emphasis on exam results can lead to a narrow focus on achieving high marks rather than fostering genuine understanding and skills development. This cultural mindset often undermines the implementation of more holistic assessment practices (Chander & Arora, 2021).

Policies at the national and provincial levels support comprehensive assessment strategies, including formative and summative assessments. There is often a gap in the enforcement of these policies. Schools and teachers may not fully adhere to the guidelines due to lack of oversight, insufficient training, or resistance to change from traditional practices (Looney, 2011). So, by encouraging assessment and evaluation practices that involve engaging students in the assessment process, promoting self-assessment, peer assessment, and critical thinking skills. Addressing these areas in assessment practices can help align classroom assessment practices in Pakistan more closely with the theoretical frameworks intended to enhance Student Learning Outcomes (Farooq, et al., 2019; Hussain, et al., 2019 & Khursheed & Alwi, 2023). Hence, the study is intended to find the relationship between theoretical knowledge understanding and practical performance ability at the secondary level and to assess the training needs of science teachers in assessment practices.

The impact of science teachers' Theoretical Knowledge in assessment on their hands-on practical abilities in classroom assessment in views of school principals (n=38)

1. There is a strong relationship between theoretical knowledge and the practical application ability of science teachers for classroom assessment practices at the secondary level (Table 1). Hence, the null hypothesis H01 is rejected.

2. There is a high impact of science teachers' theoretical knowledge on their hands-on abilities in classroom assessment (Table 2). Hence, the null hypothesis H02 is rejected.

On the basis of the findings and results, it was concluded that there is a positive relationship between theoretical knowledge and practical ability of science teachers in assessment at the classroom and school level and the theoretical knowledge of the assessment significantly affects the science teachers' hands-on practical application of assessment knowledge (Findings 1&2).

On the basis of findings, results, and conclusion it is recommended that the science teachers be provided with both theoretical and practical components of assessment pieces of training in in-service, pre-service, and induction pieces of training programs.

It is suggested for further research that the research study may be conducted on a large scale throughout the country to make the generalizations valid and reliable.